First Achievement and Final Destiny: An Examination of the True Elegiac Nature of "Beowulf"

December 8^th, 2016

In its traditional usage, an ‘epic’ is characterized as a long-form narrative poem, in which a heroic male figure faces numerous challenges to determine the fate of his nation. This hero is often a paragon of his culture, endowed with incredible strength and uncommon courage. It is thus understandable that the Old English poem Beowulf is often placed within this tradition. Its hero is the embodiment of Anglo-Saxon warrior-culture, and his battles with the three monsters of the poem effectively determine the fate of the Geats and Danes. There is an argument to be made, however, that Beowulf does not conform entirely to this easy categorization. In his essay on the subject, J. R. R. Tolkien argues that Beowulf “is not an ‘epic’… if we must have a term, we should choose rather ‘elegy.’ It is an heroic-elegiac poem; and in a sense all its first 3,136 lines are the prelude to a dirge: one of the most moving ever written” (127). While ‘elegy’ is often applied to modern literary works about grief, the term has a much broader meaning in the context of Old English poetry: it describes any poem of somber lament for a lost time. Tolkien argues that the spirit of Beowulf aligns itself with this tradition, as its primary theme is that of mortality – the futility of life and the eventuality of Beowulf’s death. Ultimately, while Beowulf has many of the characteristics of an epic poem, these similarities exist only on the surface. This essay argues that the work’s deeper themes are firmly rooted within the sensibilities of Old English literature, and thus the poem would be better classified as an elegy with heroic elements. The work defies its ‘epic’ categorization in that it disregards epic narrative conventions (such as in medias res) by beginning and ending with a funeral; it forgoes the traditional heroic arc by characterizing Beowulf as a warrior in decline; and it chooses to humanize the monsters slain by Beowulf to evoke melancholy at their passing - this is made especially pertinent given the fact that both Grendel and his Mother embody an element of fading Anglo-Saxon culture.

Beowulf first positions itself within the elegiac tradition by defying the narrative conventions usually employed within works of epic poetry. Specifically, epic poems often begin in medias res, that is to say, in the middle of the story. Beowulf, however, begins with a scene of lamentation, far removed from the main narrative – a funeral, set generations before the hero’s birth: “There they laid down their dear lord, / dispenser of rings, in the bosom of the ship, … I have never heard of a more lovely ship / bedecked with battle-weapons and war-gear, blades and byrnies … Men do not know / how to say truly – not trusted counselors, / nor heroes under the heavens – who received that cargo” (34 - 52). In an epic work, in medias res is used to emphasize the action and conflict at the heart of the narrative, as well as the role of the heroic figure within that narrative. By forgoing it, the poem is immediately signifying to the audience that the grand exploits of Beowulf are not the focus of the story. This opening instead turns the focus towards mortality and lamentation: two distinctly elegiac themes. This is also evident in the specifics of Scyld Scefing’s funeral, as he is buried with blades and byrnies: items of great significance to a culture which values war and kinship above all else. When the narrator remarks that all men, even those heroes who embody these values (such as Beowulf), will never know who received the cargo, it indicates that the traditions that once held these people together have begun to lose all meaning; they have begun to question the truth of their faith. By beginning the story in this fashion, it immediately indicates that the pagan characters of the story are on the edge of a passing era, and that the poem as a whole should be viewed through this elegiac, mournful lens. Epic narrative conventions are also subverted through the fact that Beowulf ends, not with some grand triumph, but in the funeral of its hero: “The people of the Geats then prepared for him / a splendid pyre upon the earth, / hung with battle-shields and helmets / and bright byrnies, as he had bidden; / there in the middle they laid the mighty prince, / the heroes lamenting their dear lord” (3137 – 3142). While it is not unheard of for heroic protagonists to die at the end of their poems, Beowulf’s death is particularly interesting in that it mirrors the beginning of the story so heavily. Just as Scefing was, Beowulf is laid down onto his pyre, cloistered in blades and byrnies as his kinsmen look on in lament. The somber tone of the scene is identical, as is the diction used to describe it. One of the most prevalent themes in elegiac poetry is the temporary nature of the world; by beginning and ending with a funeral – ostensibly the same funeral, at least in terms of its description – Beowulf effectively speaks to the cyclical nature of life and death. While Beowulf’s grand achievements will live on for a time, this narrative framing demonstrates that they are not the focus on the work. The poem is instead attempting to articulate that the human place in time is fragile and limited, and that the little lives of men are always rounded with a sleep. Ultimately, the narrative framing and disregard of in medias res are used to effectively position Beowulf as an elegiac text rather than a strictly epic one.

Beowulf also defies epic conventions in that the character arc of its hero is focused not solely on triumph, but on gradual decline. In a traditional epic, the hero is characterized as being of incredible skill and strength; the story details their exploits as they rise from their lowest point to a place of triumph. Through this process, they undergo a sort of spiritual growth. The character of Beowulf is similarly framed as someone of incredible, almost superhuman skill; however, he begins the poem at his highest point, and the work is primarily concerned with his gradual fall. Beowulf’s initial stature is first seen through his boasts to Hrothgar, in which he explains: “[My kinsmen] knew the might of my strength; / they themselves have seen me, bloodstained from battle, / come from the fight, when I captured five, / slew a tribe of giants, and on the salt waves / fought sea-monsters by night … and now with Grendel, / that monstrous beast, I shall by myself have / a word or two with that giant” (418 - 426). Here, Beowulf immediately offers himself to Hrothgar, boasting proudly of his skill as a fighter. Having slain giants and sea-monsters in battle, he is thus able to fulfil his pledge and defeat Grendel unarmed. This display of superhuman strength effectively elevates Beowulf to the mold of a traditional epic hero. Due to his warrior-sensibilities and desire for glory – both clearly Anglo-Saxon qualities – he is positioned within the narrative as being totally representative of his people. In accordance with epic tradition, the actions of Beowulf therefore dictate the ultimate fate of his nation. This is where the elegiac sensibilities of Beowulf’s character come into play, subverting traditional epic conventions. He is specifically held up as an incredible champion of the Anglo-Saxon people so that his inevitable death should seal their fate as well. Beowulf’s decline is essentially an analogy for the fall of the Anglo-Saxon people. The first inklings of this decline come about in the lair of Grendel’s mother, when Beowulf’s weapon proves useless against her. He only succeeds due to his receipt of a magical sword – a sort of divine intervention – which allows him to triumph. Not long after, Hrothgar offers Beowulf a warning: “The glory of your might / is but a little while; soon it will be / that sickness or the sword will shatter your strength, … the light of your eyes / will fail and flicker out; in one fell swoop / death, o warrior, will overwhelm you” (1758 - 1768). Hrothgar’s words are interesting in they simultaneously elevate Beowulf’s strength, solidifying him as the arbiter of his people, while also foreshadowing his decline. The poem is keenly aware of the fact that Beowulf is fated to die, and the entire narrative is in essence a lamentation of that fact. This is not at all congruous with the traditional arc of a heroic character, as with each step Beowulf takes, emphasis is put not on spiritual growth or triumph, but on the inevitability of his death. Hrothgar’s sermon ties into the broader elegiac themes of the story, as he suggests that life is but a temporary thing – that death awaits all people, especially those of fame and glory. This comes to fruition when Beowulf, in his old age, dies at the hands of a dragon: “The gold-friend of the Geats / did not boast of his glorious victories; his bare sword / failed at need, as it should never have done, / that ancient good iron … [His kinsmen] did not take their stand in a troop around him, / with warlike valor—they fled to the woods / and saved their lives.” (2583 – 2599). Whereas Beowulf once defeated Grendel unarmed and alone, here he is unable to face the dragon by himself; just as his blade faltered in the fight with Grendel’s Mother, here too it fails, and ultimately spells his doom. With each battle Beowulf grows weaker, and in these last moments his strength shatters completely – just as Hrothgar prophesized. Once again, this is the inverse of epic character growth. All the threads of Beowulf’s decline come together here to demonstrate the fact that the “glorious victories” of Beowulf’s youth are meaningless in the face of his death. Beowulf’s decline (and by extension, the decline of his people) is also seen in the fact that his kinsmen abandon him. In Anglo-Saxon culture, incredible emphasis is placed on oaths of loyalty, of pledging fealty to one’s kin and one’s lord. Their abandonment of Beowulf and the values that he embodies therefore suggest a dissolution of warrior society. The younger generation is no longer simply questioning their traditions, as they did at the beginning of the poem – they have now abandoned them altogether. Beowulf’s death is therefore not just the passing of a single life, but that of a nation, a lineage, and a culture. Overall, the arc of Beowulf’s character – his transition from a place of incredible strength to terrible weakness – effectively evokes both nostalgia and lament for his era. It encapsulates every aspect of the term ‘elegy,’ every possible gradation of loss.

This sense of loss and sadness is similarly evoked through the monster Grendel and his mother. While epic poetry often features supernatural beasts who confront the hero, in Beowulf these creatures are given a sense of humanity. As a result, one is able to empathize with them and mourn their passing. They also do not exist solely to confront the hero, as their deaths serve a purpose within the elegiac narrative. This is seen first in the creature Grendel, who embodies the elegiac role of the ‘exile,’ and attacks the mead-hall in jealousy: “It harrowed him / to hear the din of the loud banquet / every day in the hall, the harp being struck … he had dwelt for a time / in misery among the banished monsters, / Cain's clan, whom the creator had outlawed / and condemned as outcasts” (87 – 107). While Grendel is repeatedly described as an evil monster, this characterization exists only on a surface level. In this passage, he is instead given a sort of recognizable humanity: he experiences pain, desire, and jealousy. He even assumes a human form, and has a human ancestry through Cain. In all respects, Grendel fulfils the sympathetic role of the ‘exile,’ a staple of the elegiac tradition. Yet he is still framed as the villain. As a result of this contradiction, the reader comes to feel a sense of melancholy at the fact that he is so misunderstood – that he is unable to share in the music and companionship of the mead-hall. As the entire poem is in essence a lament for Anglo-Saxon culture, Grendel’s desire to partake in it also evokes a sense of nostalgia for this time long past. Grendel’s connection to the biblical Cain is also interesting in that it signifies the decline of Anglo-Saxon culture. The text shows the mead-hall, a representation of pagan kinship and hearth, to be under attack from a creature of clear Biblical origin. This could be interpreted as an analogy for the real-world assault of paganism in the face of Christianity. Overall, Grendel is able to evoke every aspect of the elegy: nostalgia, melancholy, and sorrow. This positions him not as an epic beast, but as a complex and flawed creature whose actions signal the end of an era . These same sentiments are also seen in Grendel’s Mother, who sneaks into the mead-hall and kills a man in revenge for her son’s death. As Hrothgar explains: “She avenged that feud / in which you [Beowulf] killed Grendel yesterday evening / in your violent way … now has come another / mighty evil marauder who means to avenge / her kin, and too far has carried out her revenge” (1333 – 1340). Just as Grendel embodied the elegiac concept of the exile, his mother comes to embody the Anglo-Saxon concept of the man-price. In early Medieval society, loyalty to family and clan are absolutely paramount. Therefore, if someone is killed, this death is to be avenged. This concept of the man-price is undoubtedly made personal for Grendel’s Mother due to the fact that Grendel was her only son. In the eyes of the audience, this conjures an image of her, not as a “mighty evil marauder,” but as a woman, enraged and grieving. This evokes a strong sense of empathy in the reader, and her untimely death is thus one of profound melancholy. She acts completely in accordance with the laws of Anglo-Saxon warrior society, yet she is still punished. Once again, the narrative weight of the monsters stems not from the fact that they challenge Beowulf, but from the fact that they demonstrate a recognizable humanity. This humanity and its accompanying sorrow is precisely what places both Grendel and his mother within the elegiac tradition.

Ultimately, Beowulf finds its roots not within the epic tradition, but within the Old English period from which the poem arose. While it undoubtedly has heroic elements, they are used only in service of communicating the work’s overall elegiac theme – that of mortality. The work first defies epic narrative convention by opening with a funeral, far removed from Beowulf’s story. This lack of in medias res immediately signals to the reader that the work is concerned not with the tribulations of its hero, but with mortality and the passage of time. By ending the story with Beowulf’s nearly identical funeral, the story alludes to the cyclical nature of life and death – the idea that humans are temporary on the earth. This idea is also reflected in the fact that Beowulf’s character arc orients the entire work around his inevitable decline rather than his gradual rise. He is only elevated to the role of an epic hero – an embodiment of the Anglo-Saxon people – so that his defeat might spell their end as well. The dissolution of both Beowulf’s strength and the bonds of loyalty between his kinsmen effectively demonstrate that his society is coming apart around him, and with his death it will be no more. This tragic element is also seen in the fact that the monsters of the poem are given human qualities: Grendel is made to embody the sad elegiac role of the exile, and his grief-stricken mother is meant to represent the Anglo-Saxon belief in justice and revenge. Like Beowulf, they each represent the values of the period, and through their deaths it becomes clear that this era is no more. While this sort of broad decline is not entirely uncommon in later epic literature, Beowulf defies a strict epic categorization in that it is the product of a very distinct time and place. The poem was recorded in Medieval England, and thus has a firm connection to that land and the heroic elegies of that era – elegies which were concerned, like Beowulf, with the belief that life is but a passing moment: whether it be in the face of a dragon or a religion, whether all at once, or grain by grain – the end eventually comes.

Works Cited

Beowulf. In ENGL 200A: Survey of British Literature 1 Courseware. Comp. Alysia Kolentsis.

Broadview, 2016. 26-71. Print.

Tolkien, J R. R. Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.

Print.